In short, NO, not yet.

I have raised this issue with some of the members of the Odoo Sales team - as you have identified - because the attributes filter list is NOT currently built by looking at the available attributes of the current category the attributes filter always shows ALL attributes and ALL attribute values for ALL products. 

This means that many or most of the attributes listed in the attribute filter are irrelevant, and will yield zero results if the user selects them from within a specific product category. To be useful the list of attributes needs to reflect the category that has been selected, or as you point out, you will get attributes offered from products in completely different categories

Consequently the attribute filter and attributes system, as it currently works, is not particularly useful to store owners. I have requested that Odoo SA look at improving this as soon as possible, and the more people that request this the greater the chance that it may be changed, if ever.